Tourism Narratives and the Politics of Normalcy in Post-370 Kashmir

Between Tulips and Gunfire: Tourism Narratives and the Politics of Normalcy in Post-370 Kashmir (With reference to Pahalgam attack)

Abstract

This paper critically analyze the politics of tourism in post-370 Kashmir, where the Indian government has embolden rising tourist arrivals, tulip festivals, and Bollywood shoots as evidence of peace and normalcy following the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019. While official discourse equates tourism with stability, the realities of militarization, repression, and recurring violence complicate this narrative. The study used a qualitative, interpretive methodology grounded in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), drawing on government campaigns, media coverage, cultural materials, and academic literature.

By Ammara Hussain         

The theoretical framework include Constructivism—to explain how states construct narratives of legitimacy with Post-Colonial Theory, which critiques how dominant powers silence indigenous voices and aestheticize contested territories. Additionally the concepts of Conflict Aesthetics and the Politics of Normalcy, enables an analysis of how beauty is mobilized to obscure violence and how stability is staged for domestic and international audiences. Overall this research finds that tourism in Kashmir functions less as an indicator of peace than as a strategic tool of narrative warfare. The 2025 Pahalgam attack, which resulted in mass tourist cancellations and renewed Indo-Pak tensions, exposed the fragility of these narratives, demonstrating that symbolic performances of peace cannot substitute for genuine political resolution. By highlighting the contradiction between “tulips and gunfire,” this paper contributes to scholarship on conflict tourism and Kashmir studies.

Key words:

Tourism, Propaganda, narrative-warfare, politics of normalcy, conflict aesthetics, terrorism

Introduction

On August 5, 2019, the Government of India revoked Article 370 of the Constitution, which had granted Jammu and Kashmir a special autonomous status since independence.[1] This constitutional change was accompanied by widespread restrictions, mass detentions, and an intensified military presence, yet it was presented domestically and internationally as a bold step toward stability, integration, and development. Among the numerous tools used to project an image of “normalcy,” tourism became central. Government agencies, politicians, and media outlets repeatedly pointed to rising tourist arrivals, investment in infrastructure, and cultural festivals as proof that Kashmir had moved beyond decades of insurgency and unrest. In official discourse, images of tulip gardens in Srinagar, snow-capped resorts in Gulmarg, and Bollywood shoots in Pahalgam symbolized not just beauty but also peace.

However, the ground reality has remained far more complex. Kashmir continues to be one of the most militarized regions in the world, with estimates of nearly 600,000 Indian troops stationed there.[2]Curfews, surveillance, and political repression deeply shape everyday life. The indigenous population frequently contests the state’s narrative of peace, highlighting issues of disenfranchisement, disappearances, and curtailed freedoms. This contradiction between the government’s portrayal and the lived experiences of Kashmiris raises a crucial research question: is tourism being used as a genuine tool of peacebuilding, or is it a political veil masking systemic repression?

The fragility of the “peace through tourism” narrative was starkly exposed by the April 2025 Pahalgam attack, one of the deadliest incidents in recent years, in which 26 civilians—many of them tourists—lost their lives.[3] The attack caused widespread panic, cancellations of bookings, and the shutdown of several tourist sites. For many observers, this single event undermined years of carefully curated messaging that Kashmir was “back to normal.” It also revive the tensions between India and Pakistan, illustrating how a localized act of violence could escalate into regional insecurity between two nuclear-armed states. The Pahalgam attack thus serves as a case study for this research: a moment where the distance between tulips and gunfire became impossible to ignore.

Academic scholarship on Kashmir has increasingly recognized the political nature of tourism. Mir (2024) examines the post-370 growth of tourism and development, noting economic benefits but also persistent political instability. Ahmad (2022) describes tourism as a form of “symbolic violence,”[4]where locals are reduced to service providers while their political voice is erased. Shankar [5](2025) goes further, calling tourism in Kashmir a form of “narrative warfare” in which the state produces selective images of beauty while suppressing stories of militarization and resistance. While these works provide valuable critiques, they often stop short of analyzing how violent disruptions such as the Pahalgam attack puncture the official discourse of peace. This study seeks to fill that gap.

The central problem is that post-370 tourism narratives symbolize tourist arrivals with peace, while ignoring both the ground experiences of Kashmiris and the structural violence underpinning daily life. When incidents of violence occur, they reveal the instability hidden beneath official imagery, but such moments are often quickly silenced in public discourse. Understanding this dynamic is essential not only for Kashmir studies but also for the broader study of how states use cultural and economic tools to shape international perception in conflict zones. This paper has some important objectives as to examine how tourism has been used to construct a narrative of peace and normalcy in post-370 Kashmir, to analyze how incidents of violence and repression, particularly the Pahalgam attack, challenge this narrative and to assess the broader implications of tourism as a political tool in conflict zones.

Literature Review

Tourism has long been understood not merely as an economic activity, but as a political and cultural practice that can be mobilized to project stability in contested regions. Scholars of confl. ict tourism argue that states often use cultural imagery, development discourse, and selective representations of heritage to mask underlying insecurities. Butler and Suntikul [6](2013) note that in conflict-affected areas, tourism can become “a stage-managed performance of peace,” where images of culture and beauty overshadow instability.

One strand of literature views tourism as a potential peace-building tool. D’Amore (1988)[7] proposed that tourism can foster intercultural dialogue and reduce hostility by encouraging people-to-people contact. Later studies by Litvin (1998) and Moufakkir (2010) suggested that tourism might create opportunities for reconciliation in post-conflict societies. However, critical scholars warn that in active conflict zones, tourism often functions less as genuine reconciliation and more as state propaganda. Hall [8](2010) emphasizes that government’s use tourism to attract investment and project stability, even when conditions remain volatile.

In the case of Jammu and Kashmir, a growing body of literature identifies tourism as a central pillar of the Indian government’s politics of normalcy.[9]Chatterji et al. (2019) argue that post-370 governance strategies sought to “discipline space” by opening Kashmir to tourists, investors, and international delegations. Ahmad (2022) critiques these campaigns as “symbolic violence,”[10]where Kashmiri identity is commoditized while dissent is silenced. Mir (2024) finds that tourism growth after 2019 has indeed been significant, but that this growth has not translated into meaningful political stability or local empowerment.

Shankar (2025) coins the term “narrative warfare” to describe how India’s tourism imagery—tulip festivals, Bollywood shoots, G20 events—projects an illusion of calm that contradicts local realities of surveillance, arbitrary detentions, and curtailed freedoms. This aligns with Zia’s (2023) concept of conflict aesthetics,[11]where beauty and culture are mobilized to obscure violence. Together, these works highlight the contradictions between state narratives and local lived experiences, a contradiction that this paper seeks to analyze in the context of the Pahalgam attack.

Comparative cases elsewhere confirm that tourism is fragile in zones of political contestation. In Palestine, tourist arrivals collapsed during the Second Intifada [12](Isaac, 2016), while Sri Lanka’s civil war repeatedly undermined efforts to market the country as a peaceful island destination (Fernando, 2018).[13]These studies demonstrate that tourism is often the first casualty of conflict escalation, underscoring its vulnerability as a political tool.

Post-colonial scholarship further deepens the analysis by emphasizing power over representation. Said’s (1978) Orientalism[14] demonstrates how dominant powers construct images of exotic places in ways that reinforce control, while Spivak (1994) highlights how the “subaltern” [15]is spoken for but rarely allowed to speak. In Kashmir, India’s tourism campaigns reproduce similar logics: marketing the valley as a land of timeless beauty, while silencing Kashmiri aspirations for self-determination.

Kaul [16](2020) similarly argues that tourism in Kashmir erases the political agency of its people, transforming them into either hospitable hosts or security risks, depending on the needs of the state. By highlighting tulip festivals and Bollywood romance while erasing images of curfews or protests, tourism functions as a form of discursive occupation.

From this body of literature, two conclusions emerge: tourism in conflict zones is never politically neutral; it is mobilized by states as a tool of legitimacy and control. In Kashmir, tourism has become central to the politics of normalcy after 2019, but there is insufficient analysis of how violent disruptions undermine these narratives. This study contributes by addressing this gap. Using the Pahalgam attack as a case study, it explores how violent interruptions expose the contradiction between tulips and gunfire.

Theoretical Framework

This research is situated at the intersection of International Relations (IR) theory and cultural-political analysis. To understand how the Indian state uses tourism to project peace in post-370 Kashmir—and how violent incidents expose the fragility of this narrative—two central theoretical approaches are applied: Constructivism and Post-Colonial Theory.

Constructivist theory emphasizes that international politics is not defined solely by material power or military capabilities, but by shared ideas, norms, and identities (Wendt, 1999).[17] States seek to shape both domestic and international legitimacy by constructing narratives that define their role and identity. In the case of Kashmir, India has framed rising tourism as evidence of peace, development, and integration. Tourism becomes a form of symbolic proof—a way of persuading international audiences that Kashmir has been normalized.

This framework explains why the Indian government invests heavily in tourism promotion campaigns and high-profile events like the Tulip Festival or the hosting of G20 meetings in Srinagar. Constructivism allows this research to examine how such narratives are constructed, sustained, and consumed internationally. It also helps in understanding how violent incidents like the Pahalgam attack disrupt these constructed meanings, forcing a renegotiation of identity and legitimacy.

While Constructivism explains the logic of narrative construction, Post-Colonial Theory critiques the power asymmetries embedded in representation. Said’s (1978) Orientalism[18] demonstrates how dominant powers construct images of exotic places in ways that reinforce control, while Spivak (1994) highlights how the “subaltern”[19] is spoken for but rarely allowed to speak. Applied to Kashmir, Post-Colonial Theory reveals how India’s tourism campaigns aestheticize the valley as a land of natural beauty, while silencing Kashmiri voices and aspirations. Tourism thus becomes an instrument of what Chatterji [20]et al. (2019) call “occupation by other means,” where development and cultural imagery mask the lived realities of militarization and disenfranchisement. This perspective highlights how Kashmiris are cast either as exotic hosts welcoming tourists or as potential threats requiring control, while their political agency is erased.

To operationalize these theoretical insights, the study draws on two cultural-political concepts:

Conflict Aesthetics[21] (Zia, 2023): the use of beauty and culture—such as tulips, landscapes, or Bollywood imagery—to obscure the presence of violence and repression.

Politics of Normalcy (Chatterji, 2019): state strategies to present contested or occupied territories as stable, peaceful, and open for development, even amid ongoing conflict.

By combining Constructivism and Post-Colonial Theory with these analytical concepts, this study develops a robust framework for analyzing the gap between official narratives (tulips) and lived realities (gunfire).

Methodology

This research employs a qualitative, interpretive methodology designed to examine how tourism is mobilized as a political narrative in post-370 Kashmir and how moments of violence, such as the Pahalgam attack, destabilize this narrative. The research is grounded in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), which permit the systematic study of texts, visuals, and representations to reveal the power relations implant in language and imagery (Fairclough, 1995).

This study follows a case study approach, focusing on post-370 Kashmir (2019–present) with particular focus to the Pahalgam attack of 2025 as a critical moment of rupture. This event serves as a factual entry point for analyzing how narratives of peace are disrupted by violence, and how the state responds to maintain control over representation.

The research relies on secondary data collection due to the political sensitivities and restricted access to Indian-administered Kashmir. The primary data sources include:

Government documents and campaigns: official press releases, Ministry of Tourism reports, and promotional materials such as advertisements and festival brochures.

Media coverage: domestic Indian media, international outlets, and Kashmiri local press, with attention to both convergences and divergences in framing.

Cultural materials: Bollywood films, tourism advertisements, and festival coverage.

Academic literature: scholarly works on conflict tourism, post-370 Kashmir, and political communication.

The collected material is subjected to thematic coding and discourse analysis. Narratives of peace, development, and normalcy are identified and compared with counter-narratives of violence, repression, and instability. Special attention is paid to the aesthetic strategies used to mask conflict (e.g., imagery of landscapes, celebratory language about tourist numbers).

This study acknowledges key limitations. First, the reliance on secondary sources limits the ability to include firsthand voices from Kashmiris, though the analysis attempts to incorporate local media and scholarship to mitigate this gap. Second, discourse analysis is interpretive and cannot claim absolute objectivity. Finally, the fast-changing political situation in Kashmir means that findings are context-specific and may shift with future developments.

Given the sensitive nature of the Kashmir conflict, ethical responsibility is paramount. The research avoids endangering individuals by not relying on direct interviews. Instead, it foregrounds critical analysis of publicly available texts and materials while remaining cautious not to reproduce state propaganda uncritically.

 Analysis & Discussion

Tourism as a Constructed Narrative of Peace

Since 2019, the Indian government has consistently projected tourism as proof of stability[22] in Kashmir. Official data reported record-breaking arrivals in 2022 and 2023, with nearly two million tourists visiting, the highest in decades. Ministerial statements declared that “normal life has returned,” citing full hotels, crowded tulip gardens, and the resumption of Bollywood film shoots in iconic Kashmiri landscapes.

Campaigns have relied heavily on aesthetic imagery. The annual Tulip Festival[23] in Srinagar, featuring millions of flowers set against snow-capped mountains, has become the centerpiece of India’s soft-power strategy. International coverage of the 2023 G20 tourism meeting hosted in Srinagar further reinforced this image, presenting Kashmir as an open and welcoming destination. Bollywood films, long associated with romanticized portrayals of the valley, have been revived as a cultural instrument to sustain the narrative of beauty and peace.

Through a constructivist lens, these efforts demonstrate how the state constructs shared meanings of peace and integration by equating tourism with normalcy. Tourist numbers are not simply economic data but political symbols used to legitimize the revocation of Article 370 and to claim that Kashmiri dissent has been neutralized.

Contradictions: Militarization and Repression

While tourism imagery projects peace, the lived reality of Kashmiris reveals persistent repression. Reports by Amnesty International [24](2019) and Human Rights Watch [25](2020) document mass detentions, communication blackouts, and pervasive surveillance. The valley remains one of the most militarized regions in the world, with nearly 600,000 Indian troops stationed there.

Local voices, as captured in Kashmiri newspapers and activist writings, repeatedly highlight the irony of promoting tulip festivals while neighborhoods experience curfews, raids, and arbitrary arrests. This disjuncture illustrates what Chatterji et al. (2019) describe as the politics of normalcy: state strategies to project stability outward while suppressing resistance inward.

From a post-colonial perspective, these practices echo colonial logics of governance. Kashmiris are cast either as exotic hosts welcoming tourists or as potential threats requiring control, while their political agency is erased. As Kaul[26] (2020) observes, the local population is reduced to the background of India’s imagery—visible in photographs but invisible in politics.

The Pahalgam Attack: A Rupture in the Narrative

The April 2025 Pahalgam attack was a critical rupture in this carefully curated discourse. Militants targeted buses carrying pilgrims and tourists, leaving at least 26 dead and dozens injured.[27] The attack received widespread media coverage, both nationally and internationally, immediately undermining the narrative that Kashmir was safe and stable.Tour operators reported mass cancellations within days. Hotels in Srinagar and Pahalgam reported a 40% drop in bookings in the following weeks. International outlets such as The Guardian and Al Jazeera highlighted the stark contrast between government claims of peace and the sudden escalation of violence.

From a constructivist perspective, the attack disrupted the state’s constructed meaning of Kashmir as “normal.” The imagery of tulips and Bollywood romance collided with images of bloodshed and panic, destabilizing the symbolic association between tourism and peace.

From a post-colonial lens, the state’s response was equally telling. Officials described the attack as an “aberration” caused by “Pakistan-sponsored elements,” framing it as external disruption rather than internal resistance. This deflection preserved the state’s narrative by externalizing blame, while continuing to silence Kashmiri voices.

Broader Implications:

The contradictions exposed by the Pahalgam attack highlight the use of tourism as a political tool in conflict zones. While tourism can provide short-term economic benefits and symbolic capital, it cannot substitute for meaningful political resolution. The reliance on imagery of tulips and festivals risks creating an illusion of peace that collapses with each act of violence.

This analysis underscores that tourism in Kashmir functions less as a pathway to peace than as a per formative spectacle designed for international consumption. Such spectacles, however, are inherently fragile.

Conclusion

This study lay out to examine the politics of tourism in post-370 Kashmir, focusing on how the Indian government used cultural imagery and economic narratives to project peace and normalcy, and how violent events such as the Pahalgam attack reveal the fragility of this construction. Drawing on Constructivism and Post-Colonial Theory, and engaging the concepts of conflict aesthetics and the politics of normalcy, the analysis demonstrates that tourism in Kashmir is not merely an economic sector but a deeply political instrument.

The findings suggest three central insights. First, the state’s tourism campaigns after the abrogation of Article 370 were carefully designed to construct a narrative of stability and integration. Tulip festivals, Bollywood productions, and record tourist arrivals were presented as proof that Kashmir had transcended its turbulent past. Second, this narrative was consistently contradicted to the ground realities of Kashmiris, who remain a hub of militarization, surveillance, and political disenfranchisement. The contradiction between tulips and gunfire exposes the gap between spectacle and reality. Third, the Pahalgam attack in 2025 underscored the fragility of tourism as a political tool: one violent rupture was sufficient to unravel years of narrative-building and reignite international concern.

These findings carry broader implications for both scholarship and policy. In the academic domain, the study adds to critical tourism and Kashmir studies by highlighting how state-led tourism in conflict regions operates as a form of “narrative warfare,” where beauty and culture are weaponized to veil the structural violence. It also contributes to International Relations debates by showing how identity and legitimacy are constructed not only through diplomatic or military strategies but also through cultural and aesthetic practices.

For policymakers, the research underscores the risks of equating tourist flows with sustainable peace. While tourism may provide short-term legitimacy and economic benefits, it cannot substitute for addressing root political grievances or achieving genuine reconciliation. Efforts to aestheticize conflict zones ultimately prove fragile when confronted with the persistence of violence.

By explaining the contrast between tulips and gunfire, this paper calls for a more critical interrogation of how tourism is mobilized in conflict regions. In Kashmir, as elsewhere, true peace will not emerge from staged normalcy but from meaningful political resolution, respect for human rights, and the empowerment of local voices in shaping their futures.

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India As a Fascist State (by Mehr-un-Nisa) Research Paper 6/30/2021

Kashmir Press - Before and after abrogation of Article 370 Research Paper 6/30/2021

Exploitation of Human Rights : CASE STUDY OF CHILDREN IN INDIAN OCCUPIED KASHMIR Research Paper 6/29/2021

Psychological Impacts of Conflict: Case Study of Kashmiri Women Research Paper 11/12/2020

Kashmir and the emergence of new normal Research Paper 11/11/2020

THE CONTEMPORARY STATE OF GILGIT-BALTISTAN; A SPECTRE OF PARTITION Research Paper 11/11/2020